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Volume 115
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Insights into sinkhole development in granular soils: Experimental and numerical investigations
Tung T. Hoang a, Thanh T. Nguyen a *, Thien Q. Huynh a, Thao Doan a b
a School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, Australia
b Wollongong Council, Wollongong, Australia
10.1016/j.partic.2026.06.006
Volume 115, August 2026, Pages 321-335
Received 21 March 2026, Revised 19 May 2026, Accepted 4 June 2026, Available online 12 June 2026, Version of Record 19 June 2026.
E-mail: thanh.nguyen-4@uts.edu.au
Highlights

• Innovative experiment coupling model test and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV).

• DEM simulation of sinkhole development with validation against experiment.

• Excellent agreement between experiment and DEM in four-stage development of sinkholes.

• Exploring the influence of triggering depth and compaction state on sinkhole formation.

• Interparticle evolution through transition phases of sinkhole formation.


Abstract

Sinkholes, a common geotechnical failure, have been reported more frequently in recent years due to complex climate change and urbanisation. This study investigates mechanisms of sinkhole development, considering the influence of triggering depth and compaction degree through experiments integrated with Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique and Discrete Element Method (DEM). Laboratory tests simulating the formation of sinkhole in subgrade soil are carried out under varying triggering depths and void ratios, where the soil displacement is recorded over time. DEM simulations are performed and validated against the experimental results analysed by PIV technique. The results show good agreement between DEM and experimental investigations, especially in capturing time-dependent stages and displacement fields of sinkhole development. Furthermore, the numerical investigation indicates that increasing the triggering depth results in later development of sinkhole with greater vertical displacement around the triggering point to promote its propagation towards the ground surface. Interestingly, dense soil exhibits highly localised mobilisation confined within well-defined displacement boundaries, whereas loose soil displays a wider displacement zone characterised by a funnel-shaped pattern. The interparticle contact behaviour further releases the insightful mechanism of sinkhole progression, giving considerable value to our understanding and prediction of this catastrophic failure.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Sinkholes; Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV); DEM; Displacement fields; Triggering depth; Compaction state
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